Islam: A Critical Look at Contemporary Issues

Islam
Links: Pages on Islam, Other Religions
God(s)	Atheist / Monotheist / Polytheist / Other
Adherent	Muslim
Adherents	Muslims
Texts	Qur'an and Hadiths
Afterlife	Heaven or hell
Founding
Heritage	Judaism
Area of Origin	Saudi Arabia
When	610
Founder	By Muhammad
Muslims in the World: 26% (2020)1
Yemen (100%), Afghanistan (100%), Somalia (100%), Iran (100%), Morocco (100%), Western Sahara (100%), Iraq (99%), Tunisia (99%), Mauritania (99%), Libya (99%) 1

Islam is a monotheistic religion based on the revelations of prophet Muhammad as recorded in the Qur'an. The religion was founded in Mecca and Medina in present-day Saudi Arabia. 'Allah' is simply the Arabic word for 'God'. Islam is counted as one of the great world religions_2,3,4. It was born in the midst of polytheist countries nestled within the Christian world; it's utterly clear declaration of a unitary god was popular in an era where Christian theologians had come up with the confusing and divisive concept of the Trinity. Islam was clarity. It was opposed by pagan neighbours and then by Christianity, and survived through wars, attaining seemingly miraculous successes₅. Whilst Europe went through its dark ages of Christian fundamentalism, Islam went through a relatively enlightened era, retaining some scientific knowledge, translating some Greek texts and developing maths. But the colonial era saw a resurgent Europe come to rule 38 of 42 Muslim countries₆. This caused long-term resentment and Muslim cultures still retain an anti-Western outlook that is versed in anti-imperialism. Islam is going through its own dark ages; some signs are that things are continuing to get worse, whilst in some places there are signs of a creeping secularism.

1. Main Pages on Islam
2. Numbers of Muslims Around the World, by Country
3. Calendar (2025)
4. Denominations
5. Links

---

1. Main Pages on Islam

2. Numbers of Muslims Around the World, by Country

#religion

Pos.		Pew Forum (2020)1	Pew Forum (2010)1	Worldmapper (2005)7
1	Yemen	99.9%	99.8%	98.9%
2	Afghanistan	99.9%	99.7%	99.5%
3	Somalia	99.8%	99.8%	99.0%
4	Iran	99.8%	99.7%	98.3%
5	Morocco	99.7%	99.7%	98.5%
6	Western Sahara	99.6%	99.5%	99.4%
7	Iraq	99.5%	99.2%	96.7%
8	Tunisia	99.3%	99.4%	99.0%
9	Mauritania	99.2%	99.1%	99.1%
10	Libya	99.0%	96.8%	96.5%
11	Palestine	99.0%	98.8%	79.9%
12	Tajikistan	98.9%	98.9%	84.0%
13	Sudan	98.9%	99.7%	71.3%
14	Mayotte	98.8%	98.7%
15	Algeria	98.4%	98.6%	96.8%
16	Comoros	98.3%	99.5%	98.3%
17	Niger	98.1%	98.6%	90.4%
18	Djibouti	97.7%	97.4%	96.9%
19	Senegal	97.6%	96.1%	87.7%
20	Turkey	97.1%	98.6%	97.4%
21	Jordan	97.1%	96.5%	93.9%
22	Gambia	97.0%	96.2%	86.3%
23	Pakistan	96.5%	96.7%	95.8%
24	Uzbekistan	95.6%	95.8%	76.4%
25	Egypt	95.2%	94.9%	84.8%
26	Azerbaijan	94.7%	97.1%	87.0%
27	Turkmenistan	94.3%	93.0%	88.2%
28	Kosovo	94.3%	93.8%
29	Syria	94.2%	89.5%	92.3%
30	Mali	94.1%	94.0%	80.7%
31	Maldives	94.1%	94.1%	98.4%
32	Saudi Arabia	92.7%	94.4%	92.2%
33	Kyrgyzstan	91.7%	90.6%	65.1%
34	Bangladesh	91.1%	90.4%	86.9%
35	Indonesia	87.0%	87.5%	56.0%
36	Guinea	86.8%	87.9%	68.8%
37	Brunei	82.2%	78.8%	55.2%
38	Oman	81.8%	90.1%	89.1%
39	Kuwait	80.2%	82.6%	85.8%
40	Sierra Leone	80.1%	81.6%	45.9%
	World Avg	25.6%	23.9%
q=201.

The population of 54 countries are substantially Muslim (2020)₈ - meaning 40% or more of the population self-identify as such. In 2007, one author stated that there were 49 muslim-majority states "which together account for around 75% of the total number of Muslims in the world"Colin Chapman (2007)₉. In 2003 a different count placed the number at 44Paul Lunde (2003)₁₀.

As a worldwide percent, Pew Forum in 2020 counted 25.6%, up from 23.4% in 2010₁.

• 6% of Europe was Muslim, in 2011. Will rise to 8% in 2030₁₁.

• In 2011, "sixty percent of Muslims live throughout Asia compared with only twenty percent living in the Arab heartland of the Middle East and North Africa"₁₂.

Population growth in the world is highest amongst the poor and the uneducated. Muslims have a disproportionate share of such people₁₃, so their numbers are rising. Factors such as war and instability in the Middle East keep the reproduction rate higher. But this will not continue indefinitely. The Muslim world is slowly aging. "In 1990 Islam's share of the world's youth was 20%; in 2010, 26%. In 2030 it will be 29% (of 15-29-year-olds)". But on average, Muslims are starting to age. "The media age in Muslim-majority countries was 19 in 1990. It is 24 now, and will be 30 by 2030. (For French, Germans and Japanese the figure is 40 or over.) This suggests Muslim numbers will ultimately stop climbing, but later than the rest of the population"₁₁.

Comparing them to the rest of the world:

When it comes to gross national income per-capita, Muslim countries are poorer than the global average, scoring $14 350 compared to $20 136₁₄.

When it comes to overall responsibility towards the environment, Muslim countries are only as good as the global average, ranking 88.09 compared to 84.93, on average across 21 datasets on the Social and Moral Development Index. See: Countries With the Best Environmental Records.

When it comes to overall health, Muslim countries are worse than the global average, ranking 106.16 compared to 96.49₁₅, across 27 datasets on the Social and Moral Development Index. See: Countries With the Healthiest Cultures and Health Policies. Specifically:

• When it comes to life expectancy, Muslim countries are only as good as the global average, scoring 68.79 compared to 71.28₁₄. See: Life Expectancy and Longevity.

• When it comes to fertility rate, Muslim countries are worse than the global average, scoring 3.14 compared to 2.47₁₆. See: The Population of the Earth.

When it comes to overall human rights, equality & tolerance, Muslim countries are worse than the global average, ranking 119.62 compared to 86.55₁₇, calculated from 21 datasets on the Social and Moral Development Index. See: Which are the Best Countries for Human Rights, Equality and Tolerance?. Specifically:

• When it comes to gender inequality, Muslim countries are worse than the global average, scoring 0.43 compared to 0.34₁₈. See: Religion Versus Womankind.

• When it comes to LGBT equality, Muslim countries are much worse than the global average, scoring -16.4 compared to 12.6₁₉. See: LGBT Rights Across the World: Which are the Best and Worst Countries?.

3. Calendar (2025)

#religious_calendars

Date	Event	Notes
Jan 27th Monday (this year)	Lailat Ul Isra Wa-l-miraj (Propher's Night Journey and Ascent)	On the 27th day of 7th month of Islamic calendar (Rajab).
Feb 13th Thursday (this year)	Lailat Ul Barah'ah (Night of Forgiveness)	On 15th day of month of Shaban The seeking of forgiveness and fixing of destiny for the next year. Prayers and maybe fasting, and visiting the graves of relatives. Maybe fireworks.
Mar 1st Saturday (29 days) (this year)	Ramadan	The 9th month of the Islamic calendar. The month in the Islamic Calendar when Mohammad received the first verses from the Qur'an.
Mar 29th Saturday (this year)	Eid Ul Fitre (End of Fast Feast)	Ramadan ends on the sighting of the new moon. A feast.
Jun 5th Thursday (5 days) (this year)	The Hajj	The pilgrimage to Makka
Jun 6th Friday (6 days) (this year)	Yaum Arafah (Day of Arafat)	For the final revelation to Muhammad.
Jun 7th Saturday (4 days) (this year)	Eid Ul Adha (Festival of Sacrifice)	For Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son.
Jun 15th Sunday (this year)	Eid Ul Ghadir	(Shi'a). A festival for the date that Muhammad appointed his cousin-and-son-in-law, Ali, to be his successor. However, the muslim community instead voted-in Abu Bakr, causing an enduring rift in Islam (i.e., Sunni and Shi'a).
Jun 27th Friday (this year)	Islamic New Year	The migration of Muhammad and his followers from Makka to Medina. Not celebrated by many Sunnis. In 2022, Islamic year 1444 AH begins.
Jul 6th Sunday (this year)	Ashura	(Sunni). A minor feast.
Sep 5th Friday (this year)	Mawlid-al-Nabi	For the birthday of Muhammad.

4. Denominations

#afghanistan #africa #akbarism #alawites #alevi #assassins #bangladesh #barelvis #buddhism #Christianity #deobandi #egypt #falsafah #guinea #hanafi #hanbali #hinduism #Ibadiyyah #ibadiyyah_(ibadi) #india #iran #iraq #islam #islamic_extremism #isma'ili #jafri #jafri_school #jamaat_i_islami #jamaat-i-islami #Jesus #jordan #kharijites #mali #maliki #montenegro #muslim_brotherhood #musta'li #Naqshbandis #nazari #nizari #oman #pakistan #pantheism #qaramita #salafi #saudi_arabia #senegal #seven #seveners #shafi #shamanism #shia #shi'ite_islam #spain #sufi #sufi_/_tasawwuf_islam #sunni_islam #syria #tablighi #tablighi_jama'at #tasawwuf_islam #tayyibi #turkey #twelve #twelvers #twelvers_(ithna_'ashariyah) #usuli #wahhabi #yemen #zaidiyyah #zaidiyyah_('fivers')

The first division in Islam was after the prophet Muhammad's death in 632CE. He left no guidance on who should succeed him₂₀, resulting in the split between Sunnis (who believed that Caliphs should be chosen democratically) and Shias (who believe that Caliph leadership should be hereditary, starting with Ali's sons Hassan and Husseyn). After many assassinations and much bloody violence, this split is still a hot and sensitive debate today; disagreements "often overlap with ethnic, cultural, and political differences, which sometimes form lines of violent sectarian conflict"₂₁ with "sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia [is] a major feature of conflicts in the Middle East today"₂₂. It is difficult to see how their conflict can ever be resolved; it's not a question of theology or divinity, but of human power-games.₂₃

Since then, a wide range of specific schools of thought have arose. Most were not aiming to create new movements, but were attempts to restore proper Islam and correct Islamic positions on theological, social and moral issues₂₄. Often, followers have to remain hidden because of traditionalist persecution and the 'misunderstandings' of powerful established Muslim communities₂₅.

For more, see:

• " Islamic Denominations, Schools, Movements and Groups" by Vexen Crabtree (2025).

Use the title link for full descriptions; here they are in brief:

• Sunni Islam. Founded in 632CE with the death of Muhammad. Defined by the belief that the first Rightly-Guided Caliphs after Muhammad were Abu Bakr (chosen by vote in 632CE), 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, 'Uthman ibn Affan and then finally Muhammad's cousin in 656CE, Ali abn Abi Talib₂₁; the first three were related to Muhammad by marriage, and the 4th by blood₂₆. Conflicts between the Caliphs and Muhammad's family were dealt with through assassinations, slaughter and infanticide, causing enduring schisms amongst Muslims. The Sunni line of caliphates is accepted by 85% of Muslims.

  • Maliki. Founded in the mid-8th century by Imam Malik ibn Anas (711-795CE). Most dominant in Africa amongst Arabic Muslims₂₇. It emphasizes the practices and laws of the early Muslims of Medina.

  • Hanafi. Founded in Iraq in the 8th century by Imam Abu Hanifa al-Nu'man (699-767CE). "The system favouted by Muslim empires such as the Ottoman"₂₇.

  • Shafi. Founded in Iraq in the early 9th century imam Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i (767-820CE). 'More liberal' than Maliki₂₇, accepting a slightly wider range of source material and texts.

  • Hanbali. Founded in Saudi Arabia in the mid-9th century by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-855CE). Strict Islam from Saudi Arabia₂₇, with deep controls on personal behaviour and family structure.

    • Wahhabi [Link]. Founded in Saudi Arabia in the 18th century by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. Wahhabi is an extremist form of Islam₂₈ that is so well-funded by Saudi Arabia that not a single Muslim population goes unpressured by its organisations_29,30. It calls for Muslims "to return to a purer faith of the early centuries of Islam" and to reject any further thought and interpretation of scripture in the light of modern knowledge₃₁. They focus on a direct and literal reading of the Qur'an₂₈. "It is Wahhabism that motivated Osama Bin Laden and the Taliban"₃₁. Wahhabism is outlawed in several Muslim countries including those as different as Iraq and Montenegro₃₁. It is particularly responsible for the persecution of Sufi Islam in Saudi Arabia₃₂. Wahhabi is an extremist form of Islam₂₈ that is so well-funded by Saudi Arabia that not a single Muslim population goes unpressured by its organisations_29,30. It calls for Muslims "to return to a purer faith of the early centuries of Islam" and to reject any further thought and interpretation of scripture in the light of modern knowledge₃₁. They focus on a direct and literal reading of the Qur'an₂₈. "It is Wahhabism that motivated Osama Bin Laden and the Taliban"₃₁. Wahhabism is outlawed in several Muslim countries including those as different as Iraq and Montenegro₃₁. It is particularly responsible for the persecution of Sufi Islam in Saudi Arabia₃₂.

  • Salafi. Founded in Egypt in the 19th century. A fundamentalist puritanical Islamic movement with a literalist outlook towards the Qur'an, arising as increased literacy meant that more people than ever could read the Qur'an for themselves; the name means 'virtuous ancestors' and the movement is determined to return to the beliefs of the first few generations₃₃. They reject mediation through interpreters and juridical schools of thought and so condemn Shi'a and Sufi islam, and, continue to generate communities that clash (sometimes violently) with the modern world₃₃. Wahhabi, in Saudi Arabia, has the same aim. "The literalist character of this approach gives this trend an equally traditionalist character that insists of reference to the Texts but forbids any interpretive reading"₃₄. Salafist groups are "in constant communication with scholars based primarily in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Egypt, or Syria)"₃₄.

  • Deobandi. Founded in Deoband, India₂₈ in 1866CE by Haji Mohammad Abi. It sought to create a Muslim structure in India in a British context where Islam was not supported by the state, in particular, to found adult Islamic schools₃₅; the founder of this fundamentalist₂₈ movement "established his Darul Al Ouloum (Knowledge Center) in 1866 [and now] it is estimated that there are an additional 5,000 or more Deobandi schools scattered throughout the Indian subcontinent. While they insist upon an extensive knowledge of Hadith, they reject sufi practices and saints as innovation (bida'). The Deobandi is primarily concerned with the teaching and transmission of Islam through the creation of its Qur'anic schools"₂₈. They were also founded with the specific aim of increasing the separation between Muslims and non-Muslims₃₅. The Taliban in Afghanistan took the Deobandi as their inspiration₂₈ and Jamaat Al-Tabligh also emerged from Deobandi Islam.

  • Barelvis. Founded in India in the late 19th century by Ahmed Raza (1856-1921). Raza founded this fundamentalist₂₈ movement to "emphasize the figure of the Prophet and [teach] that the souls of the prophet and saints act as mediators between believers and God"₂₈; it "affirms traditional Sufism and the legitimacy of certain aspects of folk Islam, such as practices surrounding shaikhs (elders, or holy men) and shrines"₃₆ and is adored for its devotional songs₃₆.

  • Tablighi Jama'at. Founded in India in 1926CE by Muhammad Ilyas Kandhlawi. Arising from the Deobandi tradition, it's yet-another faction that preaches for Muslims to adhere to stricter Islam, with a stronger emphasis on proslytising to non-Muslims₃₆. A tumultuous split in 2016 means that now there are two organisations with this name, one based in India led by Maulana Saad Kandhelvi, and the other spread across a few countries with no single HQ.

  • Muslim Brotherhood. Founded in Egypt in 1927/8CE by Hassan al-Banain₃₀. They were involved in a string of terrorist attacks trying to enforce traditional conservative Islam there, including murdering two prime ministers (and tried for a third)₃₇. Scholar Neil Kressel says "most contemporary manifestations of Islamic extremism can trace their earliest organizational roots to two movements"₃₀, one of them being Jamaat-i-Islami and the other the Muslim Brotherhood. They wanted to remove the influence of non-Muslims on Islamic culture and politics and to oppose the British₃₈. They have been influential in creating "purely Islamic legal systems for Muslim states"₃₈ and over time have also supported some democratic opposition movements in Muslim countries₃₉, but have often returned to violence: membership has moved between it and Al Qaeda and a member founded the terrorist group Hamas₃₉. Egypt has long curbed the group, and in 2025 they were banned in Jordan.

• Shia / Shi'ite Islam. Founded in 632CE with the death of Muhammad. Defined by the belief that Muhammad's rightful successor was his family, starting with his cousin-and-son-in-law, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib_21,24. Ali was finally granted the Caliph spot in 656CE, but was "tragically assassinated by a Muslim extremist in 661. [...] His rival, Muawiyyah, seized the caliphate throne, and established the more worldly Umayyad dynasty"₂₀. When there were mass protests against their exclusion from power, the Umayyad dynasty also killed Ali's son Husain and most of his family and companions₄₀. Shia's bitterly complain, quite rightly, that corrupt Sunni and Shia Muslim rulers have denied them justice₂₄.

  • Zaidiyyah ('Fivers'). Founded in Kufa, Iraq in the 8th century by Zayd ibn Ali. Zaidiyyah emerged in the 8th century, when Zayd ibn Ali's followers (a great-grandson of Imam Ali) believed he was the rightful fifth Imam, which set them apart from other Shia groups, and they attempted a revolt against the Umayyad Caliphate. Zaydis are sometimes nicknamed the "Fivers". They emphasize rationalism, ijtihad (independent reasoning), and have historically been more theologically aligned with Sunni Islam than other Shia branches. Most Zaydis today are found in northern Yemen, where they´ve had a long and influential history.

  • Jafri School. Founded in Medina, Saudi Arabia in the 8th century by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. Jafri islam isn't a denomination; like Falsafah, it's a school of thought, specifically in this case, a fiqh (school of jurisprudence), used widely by various Shia denominations. It encourages ijtihad - reasoned interpretation. This is the application of reason and practicality to Islamic law - something which tends to get banned by fundamentalist and extremist sects. It allows the use of the sayings and actions of the Imams, especially those of Ja'far al-Sadiq, as well the Hadiths and Quran. In difficult circumstances, it even allows taqiyya - the practice of concealing one's faith or beliefs when facing persecution or danger; this came about during long periods of violent oppression at the hands of Sunni Islam.

    • Usuli. Founded in Iraq and Iran in the 10th-12th century. Usulism (al-?U?uliyya) is now the mainstream school of jurisprudence within Twelver Shi'a Islam. Usulism started between the 10th and 12th centuries, but only rose to prominence in Safavid Iran (16th-18th centuries). It became the mainstream Twelver Shi'a school after decisively eclipsing its rival, Akhbarism, in the late 18th century. Like the Jafri school of jurisprudence, it also emphasizes the use of reason, critical analysis, and scholarly interpretation (ijtihad) to derive Islamic law. The name comes from U?ul al-fiqh, meaning “principles of jurisprudence". It applies rationality to the hadiths - not all traditions are accepted blindly and authenticity is critically assessed. A key difference to Jafri is that it encourages taqlid - following a living jurist as a guide.

  • Isma'ili. Founded in Kufa, Iraq in 765CE. Isma'ili Islam is a Shia branch that split over who should succeed the sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq. Isma'ilis believe that his son Isma'il ibn Ja'far was the rightful seventh Imam. From there, mainstream Isma'ilis continued the line of Imams beyond Isma'il, eventually leading it to have much influence in northern Africa and contributing to the Fatimids dynasty, and the Nizari and Musta'li denominations.

    • Seveners. Founded in Kufa, Iraq in the late 8th century. The Seveners are Isma'ili Muslims who believed that the seventh Imam, Isma'il ibn Ja'far, was the final Imam and his son Muhammad ibn Isma'il went into mystical hiding, and would return in the future as the Mahdi, a messianic figure. They therefore rejected all following Isma'ili Imams. Their most prominent and radical offshoot was the Qarmatians, who became known for their revolutionary zeal and even sacked Mecca in 930 CE.

      Now "headed by the Aga Kham, they hold that the son of the sixth Imam after Ali, Isma'il, who died before his father, was the seventh Imam and after Ismail the line died out"₂₇.

    • Qaramita. Founded in Saudi Arabia in the late 9th century by Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi (influenced by Hamdan Qarmat). The Qarmatians were Seveners who more strongly rejected the authority of the Fatimid Caliphate (which accepted a chain of Imams, not just the first 7), and developed their own more philosophically included communities in Eastern Arabia, particularly around Al-Ahsa. They were esoteric and rejected many mainstream Islamic practices, including ritual prayer, fasting and pilgrimage. Like many Isma'ili groups, they believed in the imminent arrival of the Mahdi, a messianic figure who would usher in justice and equality. They interpreted core Islamic concepts in symbolic or allegorical ways, and therefore, had a much more modern and philosophical outlook, with fewer problems between trying to harmonize literalist text with the complexities of reality.

    • Nizari. Founded in Iran in 1094CE. Following the death of the Fatimid Caliph and Isma'ili Imam al-Mustansir Billah in 1094CE, of his two sons, Nizar was the natural hier (as the oldest), but the powerful al-Afdal Shahanshah official backed the younger son, al-Musta'li, and installed him as Imam and Caliph, leading to a schism that saw the forming of the Nizari and the Musta'li denominations.

      After the Nizaris were denied power and influence, and they had to form a secretive and defensive society. They became known for their fortified mountain strongholds (like Alamut in Persia) and their campaign of assassinations of political enemies, especially against the Musta'li denomination which had all but stolen the Fatimid empire from them.

      In modern times, led by their current Imam, Aga Khan IV, who is a prominent philanthropist and advocate for development through the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), the community emphasizes ijtihad (independent reasoning), and their interpretation of Islam is deeply spiritual, ethical, and humanitarian.

    • Musta'li. Founded in Cairo, Egypt in 1094CE by al-Afdal Shahanshah. Following the death of the Fatimid Caliph and Isma'ili Imam al-Mustansir Billah in 1094CE, of his two sons, Nizar was the natural hier (as the oldest), but the powerful al-Afdal Shahanshah official backed the younger son, al-Musta'li, and installed him as Imam and Caliph, leading to a schism that saw the forming of the Nizari and the Musta'li denominations.

    • Tayyibi. Founded in Yemen in 1130CE queen Arwa al-Sulayhi, supporting the infant at-Tayyib. After the assassination of the Fatimid Caliph-Imam al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah in 1130, his infant son at-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim was declared the rightful 21^st Imam by a faction of Musta'li Isma'ilis. However, political forces in the Faimid empire's capital at Cairo preferred a more practical leader, and installed al-Hafiz, al-Amir´s cousin, as both Caliph and Imam, leading to a split. Queen Arwa al-Sulayhi of Yemen, a powerful and devout Isma'ili ruler, refused to recognize al-Hafiz instead of at-Tayyibi. She established an office who would rule on the infant's behalf, with Dhu´ayb ibn Musa appointed Queen Arwa as the first ruler, and marking the beginning of Tayyibi Islam.

  • Twelvers (Ithna 'Ashariyah). Founded in the late 8th/early 9th century. The Twelvers, or Ithna 'Ashariyah, arose after the death of the sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, in 765 CE, when a majority of his followers recognized his son Musa al-Kazim as the rightful seventh Imam, continuing the line of Imams up to the twelfth, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is believed to have gone into occultation around 874CE and who will return later as the Chosen One₂₇. This belief in a line of twelve divinely guided Imams is what gave the sect its name. The Twelvers gained significant influence and political power during the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century, where it was made the state religion of Iran₂₇.

  • Alawites. Founded in Syria in the 9th century indirectly by Muhammad ibn Nusayr. The Alawites trace their origins to Muhammad ibn Nusayr, a disciple of the tenth and eleventh Twelver Imams during the Abbasid Caliphate. His teachings formed the basis of what became known as Nusayrism, later evolving into Alawism. They were formally organized by al-Khasibi in the 10th century, were popular in Syria₂₇ and during the Hamdanid dynasty in Aleppo; although they gained some influence, they remained a secretive and often persecuted minority for centuries. They accept some (but not as many) ideas of Christianity; Islam accepts Jesus as a prophet, but, the Alawites go a little further in also believing that Jesus was also resurrected.

  • Alevi. Founded in Turkey in the 13th century inspired by Haji Bektash Veli (1209-1271CE). Alevi is a form of Islam blends elements of Shi'a Islam, Sufism, and traditional Anatolian (now Turkish) folk culture (including Shamanism. Aside from Turkey, it also has communities in the Balkans and among the Turkish diaspora in Europe. They accept the Twelve Imams (like the Twelvers), and state that their lineage goes back to Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. They are inspired by the 13th-century mystic Haji Bektash Veli, who emphasized love, tolerance, and inner spirituality. Many Alevis also identify with the Bektashi Order, a Sufi brotherhood with overlapping beliefs. Sunni and Shia Islam both reject large portions of Alevi belief, and the Alevis have faced violent persecution from Sunni Islam, and they still face marginalization, even in modern Turkey.

• Kharijites. Founded in Saudi Arabia in 656CE. Defined by belief that anyone can become a Caliph (Muslim leader) if they are upstanding, and, that any sinful Caliph needs to be removed. They existed in constant conflict, and petered out by the 13th century.₄₁

  • Ibadiyyah (Ibadi). Founded in Iraq in the late 7th century. They trace their history to Muhammad's wife, Khadijah, and "see themselves as preserving the pure teachings of Muhammad"₂₇. Most are nomadic tribespeople₂₇, and, it is popular in Oman.

• Sufi / Tasawwuf Islam. Founded in Saudi Arabia in the 7th/8th century by Hasan of Basra. Mostly Sunni, and the only primary denomination that can be described consistently as moderate and sometimes even tolerant, which has made it well-regarded outside of the Middle East₄₂. A more mystical and symbolic approach to Muhammadean spiritualism₅. Sufis are "numerous and very diversified. Whether Naqshbandis, Qadris, Shadhilis, or any of the many other turuq (plural of tariqa), Sufi circles are essentially orientated toward the spiritual life and mystical experience"₃₄. Sufi still has some violent extremist elements such as the Naqshbandis₄₂, and is becoming hardline in Guinea and Mali₄₃. Sufi is practised by up to 450m people across Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, who together represent perhaps one third of all Muslims₄₂ and is also influential in sub-saharan Africa, notably Senegal₃₂.

  • Akbarism. Founded in Spain in the 13th century inspired by Ibn Arabi. Akbari Islam is a Sufi metaphysical school rooted in the teachings of the Andalusian mystic Ibn Arabi (1165-1240 CE), often called Shaykh al-Akbar ("the Greatest Master"). It became influential in Syria, Anatolia (now Turkey), Persia, and India. It was primarily formed by al-Akbar's disciples such as Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi and later thinkers Dawud al-Qaysari and Mulla Sadra. Its core teaching pantheist: creation isn't external to God - all existence is a manifestation of the Divine. Much like Buddhism or Hinduism, the journey of the soul is about recognizing this unity and returning to the Source. It does not embrace the legalism or strictness of Sunni or Shia forms of Islam, and is a deeply philosophical, poetic, and symbolic approach.

• Falsafah. Founded in the 9th-12th century. This was a train of thought that saw Greek philosophical concepts discussed and condoned in the search for "primordial, universal faith of timeless truths, which, they were convinced, had preceded the various historical religions"₂₄. It had potential to become a denomination, but was opposed increasingly strongly until it disappeared in the 12th century.

• Assassins [Link]. Founded in the 11th century. The activity of the assassins, known also as the Ismailis or the Nizaris and called the Fidayeen (devoted ones), were so prominent and consistent that they gave the English word the very word for someone who fulfils a directed murder. Their aim was to prepare the Muslim world "for the coming of the Mahdi (or Messiah) who would create the conditions for an earthly paradise where both law and oppression would disappear"₄₄. They would often find employment near their future victims, and await orders from the assassins' organisation, when the time was right, to stab them in the back. Although now used in all contexts, it was a specifically religious affair, and in medieval Christianity describing someone as an 'assassin' meant that they were full of devotion for God. The first division in Islam was after the prophet Muhammad's death in 632CE. He left no guidance on who should succeed him₂₀, resulting in the split between Sunnis (who believed that Caliphs should be chosen democratically) and Shias (who believe that Caliph leadership should be hereditary, starting with Ali's sons Hassan and Husseyn). After many assassinations and much bloody violence, this split is still a hot and sensitive debate today; disagreements "often overlap with ethnic, cultural, and political differences, which sometimes form lines of violent sectarian conflict"₂₁ with "sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia [is] a major feature of conflicts in the Middle East today"₂₂. It is difficult to see how their conflict can ever be resolved; it's not a question of theology or divinity, but of human power-games.₂₃

  Since then, a wide range of specific schools of thought have arose. Most were not aiming to create new movements, but were attempts to restore proper Islam and correct Islamic positions on theological, social and moral issues₂₄. Often, followers have to remain hidden because of traditionalist persecution and the 'misunderstandings' of powerful established Muslim communities₂₅.

• Jamaat-i-Islami. Founded in India in 1941CE₃₆ by Mawlana Abul Aala Mawdudi_30,36. Jamaat-i-Islami pushes Islam as a whole-life endeavour - including politics and national organisation - and belittles other forms of piestic Islam.₃₆. Scholar Neil Kressel says "most contemporary manifestations of Islamic extremism can trace their earliest organizational roots to two movements"₃₀, one of them being Jamaat-i-Islami and the other the Muslim Brotherhood.

See: " Islamic Denominations, Schools, Movements and Groups" by Vexen Crabtree (2025).