Buddhism

Buddhism
Links: Pages on Buddhism, Other Religions
God(s)	Atheist / Monotheist / Polytheist / Other
Adherent	Buddhist
Adherents	Buddhists
Texts	Multifaceted. Includes Pali Canon and the Mahayana sutras, depending.
Afterlife	Reincarnation until escape
Founding
Heritage	Hinduism
Area of Origin	India
When	1st millennium BCE
Founder	From traditions based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama
Buddhists in the World: 4% (2020)1
Cambodia (97%), Thailand (94%), Myanmar (89%), Bhutan (75%), Sri Lanka (70%), Laos (64%), Mongolia (51%), Japan (37%), Singapore (31%), Vietnam (23%) 1

The historical evidence does not make it easy to trace the beginnings of Buddhism except that it sprung out of, and shares many basic beliefs, with Hinduism and other Vedic Faiths. "During the reign of emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) Buddhism became a major Indian religion and was subsequently established across the whole subcontinent and beyond"₂ and is now counted as one of the great world religions_3,4,5,6. It has grown so diverse that it is very hard to define its core nature - in 1913 one scholar pointed out that "in Japan alone it has differentiated itself into thirteen main sects and forty-four sub-sects"₇. Buddhism is a well-liked and respected atheist religion_{8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19} and in the West; many attend Buddhist retreats, meditation centres and classes. Western Buddhist communities nearly all run such events for the general public. But in the West many who put "Buddhist" on census forms have merely attended some of these and who have an interest, but are not committed Buddhists, which artificially inflates the numbers.

1. Main Pages on Buddhism
2. Numbers of Buddhists Around the World, by Country
3. Calendar (2026)
4. Denominations
5. Karma
6. Religion in China
7. Links

1. Main Pages on Buddhism

• Buddhism and Women (2025)

• Buddhist Denominations and Major Divisions (2025)

• Zen Buddhism (2018)

• Buddhist Extremism (2018)

• Buddhism is an Atheist Religion (2018)

• The Evil One in Buddhism: Māra, the Buddhist Satan (2014)

• Criticisms of Buddhism: Its History, Doctrine and Common Practices (2011)

Minor pages:

• Meditation: One of Buddhism's most recognizable features is its core practice of meditation₃₂. "It was through meditation that the Buddha reached enlightenment. It´s normally practiced sitting down in a quiet place, with legs crossed or in the Lotus position. [...] Many forms of meditation have been developed by the different branches of Buddhism" and some practices involve chanting too₃₂. The particular method of sitting cross-legged was initially developed by Indian teachers₃₃. Extended meditation is especially important for Zen Buddhism and is listed as the first of its three main elements by Kaiten Nukariya₃₃.

• The Ethic of Reciprocity appears in many religions. Buddha said 'Let a man overcome anger by kindness, evil by good' - it is the same rule later adopted by Christians as their Golden Rule, by Pagans as the Wiccan Rede and by many others. Ethics Of Reciprocity like the Golden Rule and the Wiccan Rede Do Not Work.

• The Buddhist Emperor Wang Mang was 'probably the first recorded ruler to abolish the slave trade' on Religion and Abolition of the Historical Slave Trade.

• In the Five Precepts of Buddhist virtues, the one prohibiting harming livings beings “means that many Buddhists are vegetarians"₃₄. Also see: The Benefits and Dangers of Vegetarianism.

• Right Speech:: Tell the truth, speak kindly and wisely, don't stroke division or indulge in gossip: Buddhists, Christians and Muslims Must Debate Kindly, Patiently and Courteously

2. Numbers of Buddhists Around the World, by Country

#religion

The population of 7 countries are substantially Buddhist (2020)₂₁ - meaning 40% or more of the population self-identify as such. Comparing them to the rest of the world:

On gross national income per-capita, Buddhist countries are much poorer than the global average, scoring $9 323 compared to $20 136₂₂.

On overall responsibility towards the environment, Buddhist countries are close to the global average, ranking 85.53 compared to 84.93, on average across 21 datasets on the Social and Moral Development Index. See: Countries With the Best Environmental Records.

On overall health, Buddhist countries approximate the global average, ranking 97.18 compared to 97.39₂₃, across 42 datasets on the Social and Moral Development Index. See: Countries With the Healthiest Cultures and Health Policies. Specifically:

• When it comes to life expectancy, Buddhist countries are only as good as the global average, scoring 71.60 compared to 71.28₂₂. See: Life Expectancy and Longevity.

• When it comes to fertility rate, Buddhist countries are better than the global average, scoring 2.05 compared to 2.47₂₄. See: The Population of the Earth.

When it comes to overall human rights, equality & tolerance, Buddhist countries are worse than the global average, ranking 104.23 compared to 90.04₂₅, on average across 30 datasets on the Social and Moral Development Index. See: Which are the Best Countries for Human Rights, Equality and Tolerance?. Specifically:

• When it comes to gender inequality, Buddhist countries are worse than the global average, scoring 0.39 compared to 0.34₂₆. See: Religion Versus Womankind.

• When it comes to LGBT equality in the 2020s, Buddhist countries are similar to the global average, scoring -1.18 compared to -1.21₂₇. See: LGBT Rights Across the World: Which are the Best and Worst Countries?.

3. Calendar (2026)

#religious_calendars

Buddhist festivals and dates vary by country and culture and are often mixed with historical non-Buddhist celebrations such as those of Taoism or Shintoism₃₅. Most follow a lunar calendar, which is difficult to align with a standard Gregorian calendar, meaning that it's not possible to produce a standard list of routine Buddhist dates outside of local calendars maintained by regional scholars₃₅; this is also the case for all of the various calendars in use in south-east Asia.

4. Denominations

#buddhism #china #india #japan #magic #mahayana_buddhism #myanmar #nepal #pure_land_buddhism #religion #soka_gakkai #sri_lanka #thailand #theravada_buddhism #Tibet #tibetan_buddhism #vajrayana_buddhism #zen_buddhism

Buddhism developed both of its two main branches in India; Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism₂₈. In its 2500-year history, Buddhism has developed many other factions, denominations and sects - so many that it is difficult to define its core nature. In 1913 one scholar pointed out that "in Japan alone it has differentiated itself into thirteen main sects and forty-four sub-sects"₇. Here are the largest definable groups.

For more, see:

• "Buddhist Denominations and Major Divisions" by Vexen Crabtree (2025).

Use the title link for full descriptions; here they are in brief:

• Theravada Buddhism. Founded in India in the 5th century BCE. Older and simpler Buddhism, based mainly on oral traditional of the first sngha (community)₂₉, then written into the Pali texts based on varied stories of Buddha's teachings_29,30. The name means 'teachings of the Elders' because it purports to be formed from the most ancient Buddhist communities (sanghas)₃₁. It is also called 'Hinayana' which means 'Small Vehicle', but that is too easily used insultingly to mean 'inferior'₃₀. It's also called "Southern Buddhism" because it is popular in south-east Asia, e.g. in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand₃₀.

• Pure Land Buddhism. Founded in the 2nd century BCE. Adherents aim to get reborn into specific mystical regions that are associated with various Buddhas, as a way of speeding up the escape from samsara and the attainment of Enlightenment. Most auspiciously, Amitabha Buddha rules the Pure Land where those faithful to him can go₂₉.

  Standard Pure Land meditations include fixing on mental images of specific buddhas, perhaps using a painting or status, perhaps combined with chanting or ritual gestures, with the aim of steering the next resurrection towards the realms that those buddhas inhabit.₃₂

• Mahayana Buddhism. Founded in India in the 1st century CE. "Great Vehicle" Buddhism₃₁, which started with traditions from the Han Dynasty. Kaiten Nukariya₇ said in 1913 that 'very little' is known of 'Northern Buddhism' outside of the Orient, because of translation difficulties₃₀; but things are much better now and it has become the most practised form of Buddhism in the world. Starting with Pali texts, it added new stories and developed commentaries on original stories₂₉. It adapted the rules for Buddhist monks in order to make them usable beyond India₃₁ and all this helped spread Buddhism to China, Japan and Tibet₂₉. In Mahayanan countries, you will often find shrines to figures such as Amitabha Buddha and Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara who represent Buddhist ideals₃₂.

• Vajrayana Buddhism. Founded in India in the 5th century CE. The newest of the three 'vehicles', with a focus more towards tantra, so much so that it is often called Tantric Buddhism₂₈. Popular in Nepal, China, Japan and Tibet₃₀.

• Zen Buddhism [Link]. Founded in the 7th/8th century CE. Forms of Zen Buddhism are at least as old as Buddhism in general₃₆. Zen is famous for its physical and mental training and its rejection of written scriptures₃₇, and the concentration on logical mental dilemmas and paradoxes. Forms of Zen Buddhism are at least as old as Buddhism in general₃₆. Zen is famous for its physical and mental training and its rejection of written scriptures₃₇, and the concentration on logical mental dilemmas and paradoxes.

• Tibetan Buddhism. Founded in Tibet, China in the 8th century CE. Developing from Indian Mahayana Buddhism and translated Theravada Buddhism texts₂₉, Tibetan Buddhism developed its own canon and multiple unique practices, some based on local Tibetan Bon beliefs₂₈.

• Soka Gakkai [Link]. Founded in Tokyo, Japan in 1930CE by Tsunesaburō Makiguchi. A Nichiren Buddhist educational movement that became a distinct denomination, with a much more worldly outlook. A Nichiren Buddhist educational movement that became a distinct denomination, with a much more worldly outlook.

See: "Buddhist Denominations and Major Divisions" by Vexen Crabtree (2025).

5. Karma

#afterlife #buddhism #christianity #hinduism #india #jainism #karma #new_age #reincarnation #sikhism #taoism #vedic_religions

William James says that Buddhism, like Christianity, is more "complete" than many other religions because it has attempted complex explanations of why suffering exists. See The Problem of Evil: Why Would a Good God Create Suffering?.

“Karma is an important concept in a range of Vedic religions and cultures, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism_38,39, all stemming from Indian beliefs. Karma is a universal principal and cosmic law, like the Tao of Taoism₄₀. Unlike Taoism, individual beings (and the entire universe) go through a large number of incarnations₄₁. It is closely linked to the concept of continual rebirth (reincarnation)₄₂. Although belief in Karma is a good tool for improving motivation to treat others well, it also has a worrying implication: Karma creates blames on those suffering from disabilities and other ailments, unfairly insinuating that they deserve their problems.

Original Jain beliefs had it that all actions had negative karma and only complete serenity and detachment could help the situation₄₃. Later Jain beliefs came closer Hindu and Buddhist ideas: Acts of merit such as pilgrimages and worship can improve your next fate₄₄. Eventually, beings can break free from the cycle and scape the evil world in which we all are trapped. In Hinduism and Jainism this liberation is called moksha₄₁ and can come realisation that "the inner atman and the universal brahman are identical"₄₁. It is held back by any accumulated karma₄₁. In Buddhism the result is the attainment of enlightenment and nirvana. Western New Age movements have also taken on the concept "though sometimes with a degree of misunderstanding"₄₄. All in all, more people on Earth believe in Karma through a series of rebirths than in any other religious principle._{42,43,44,45,46,47}”

"How Does Karma Work in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism?" by Vexen Crabtree (2017)

“Karma. A volitional action which is either wholesome or unwholesome, and in consequence either rewarded or punished.”

"Buddhist Scriptures" by Edward Conze (1959)₄₈

In Buddhism, karma is not simple₄₉. There are many streams of cause and effect (niamas). Ken Jones in "The Social Face of Buddhism"₅₀ writes "all, however, are also expressions of a Universal Consciousness, alayavijnana. The 'law' of kamma and the 'law' of cause and effect are thus not synonymous in Buddhism. Kammaic 'law' is simply one kind of cause and effect relationship"₄₉. Buddhism "rejects a fatalstic view of karma"₄₄ which means that individuals can do something about it, by changing their behaviour, improving their outlook, avoiding bad deeds, and engaging in ethical behaviour₄₉. Karma isn't just about actions: a lot of it is about internal state of mind, internal desire and internal psychology₄₉. When it comes to Buddhism's multistreamed laws of cause and effect, thought crime has ramifications across multiple lifetimes.

“Buddhists believe that we are tied to the cycles of death and birth through desire and can be born again in many different forms. But they believe they can find a way to escape this cycle, to be finally released from reincarnation to reach nirvana.”

"Religions of the World" by Breuilly, O'Brien & Palmer (1997)₄₅

“Traditional and canonical Buddhism extends the span of kamma through successive rebirths. The succession, however, is that of a vital energy, not of a reincarnated personality.”

"The Social Face of Buddhism" by Ken Jones (1989)₄₉

“Karma was a pivotal concept in Indian thinking, around which turned the whole question of why life is as it is. ... It can act as an explanation of why misfortune happens when it is not recognisably the result of particular actions. [...] The importance of karma is that i[t] demonstrates the practicality of Buddhist teachings. Ethical considerations become paramount, because liberating oneself from the dis-ease of samsaric existence is a karmic matter.”

"Buddhism" by Clive Erricker (1995)₄₇

Bad karma resulting from previous bad decisions, in this life or in former lives, can cause suffering in the current incarnation. The Buddha said:

“Evil in the future is the fruit of bodily offence. Evil is the fruit of offence by word, by thought, in the future life. If I offend in deed, in word, in thought, should not I, when the body breaks up, after death be reborn in the Waste, the Way of Woe, the Downfall, the Purgatory?”

The Buddha
In Anguttara Nikaya Part 2, Chapter 1:1₅₁

There are many variations in specific beliefs between different Buddhist groups. One of the most unique is Mahayanan belief that upon finally achieving nirvana, the result is not annihilation, but, eternal existence in a place free from karma, without the worry of reincarnation. Some branches call it Pure Land, and also tell stories that there are various plains of distance at various distances from it; being reborn in them improves your chances of getting to Nirvana.₅₂

6. Religion in China₅₃

#buddhism #china #confucianism #eastern_religion #religion_in_china #taoism

Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Chinese folk religion are the four main forms of religion in China; their beliefs and practices have intermingled and interchanged over thousands of years, and most local communities combine parts of all of them_{54,55,56,57,58}. China's earliest dynasties continued folk practices that have existed since pre-history, with religious leaders being shamans and guides speaking on behalf of the spirit world₅₉ and a multitude of local gods and practices, and some of those ancient practices persist today in rural areas. Despite liberalisation over the past several decades, large numbers of Chinese - two thirds - do not consider themselves religious at all₆₀ and most new religious movements are suppressed_61,62.

Although Buddhism can be found in China from the 1st century CE, it didn't have much influence₅₅ until after the tumultuous era at the end of the Han dynasty in the 3rd century CE when Confucianism fall out of favour₆₃.

“... although it was not until at least the fifth century that reliable translations and scholarly study were being carried out in China. Buddhism complemented existing Chinese thought by adding a religious dimension related to the explanation of suffering and the path to liberation. Buddhist thought also added to Chinese metaphysics.”

"The Phenomenon Of Religion: A Thematic Approach" by Moojan Momen (1999)₅₅

For more, see:

• "Religion in China" by Vexen Crabtree (2022).