Islamic Denominations, Schools, Movements and Groups
https://www.humanreligions.info/islam_denominations.html
By Vexen Crabtree 2023
The first division in Islam was after the prophet Muhammad's death in 632CE. He left no guidance on who should succeed him1, resulting in the split between Sunnis (who believed that Caliphs should be chosen democratically) and Shias (who believe that Caliph leadership should be hereditary, starting with Ali's sons Hassan and Husseyn). After many assassinations and much bloody violence, this split is still a hot and sensitive debate today; disagreements "often overlap with ethnic, cultural, and political differences, which sometimes form lines of violent sectarian conflict"2. It is difficult to see how their conflict can ever be resolved; it's not a question of theology or divinity, but of human power-games.3
Since then, a wide range of specific schools of thought have arose. Most were not aiming to create new movements, but were attempts to restore proper Islam and correct Islamic positions on theological, social and moral issues4. Often, followers have to remain hidden because of traditionalist persecution and the 'misunderstandings' of powerful established Muslim communities5.
- Sunni Islam (632CE)
- Shia / Shi'ite Islam (632CE)
- Kharijites (656CE)
- Sufi / Tasawwuf Islam (7th/8th century)
- Falsafah (9th-12th century)
- Jamaat-i-Islami (1941CE)
- Links
1. Sunni Islam (632CE)
Founded in 632CE with the death of Muhammad. Defined by the belief that the first Rightly-Guided Caliphs after Muhammad were Abu Bakr (chosen by vote in 632CE), 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, 'Uthman ibn Affan and then finally Muhammad's cousin in 656CE, Ali abn Abi Talib2; the first three were related to Muhammad by marriage, and the 4th by blood6. Conflicts between the Caliphs and Muhammad's family were dealt with through assassinations, slaughter and infanticide, causing enduring schisms amongst Muslims. The Sunni line of caliphates is accepted by 85% of Muslims.
1.1. Maliki (mid-8th century)
Founded in the mid-8th century by Imam Malik ibn Anas (711-795CE). Most dominant in Africa amongst Arabic Muslims7. It emphasizes the practices and laws of the early Muslims of Medina.
1.2. Hanafi (8th century)
Founded in Iraq in the 8th century by Imam Abu Hanifa al-Nu'man (699-767CE). "The system favouted by Muslim empires such as the Ottoman"7.
1.3. Shafi (early 9th century)
Founded in Iraq in the early 9th century imam Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i (767-820CE). 'More liberal' than Maliki7, accepting a slightly wider range of source material and texts.
1.4. Hanbali (mid-9th century)
Founded in Saudi Arabia in the mid-9th century by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780-855CE). Strict Islam from Saudi Arabia7, with deep controls on personal behaviour and family structure.
1.4.1. Wahhabi (18th century)
#iraq #islam #islamic_extremism #montenegro #saudi_arabia #wahhabi
Founded in Saudi Arabia in the 18th century by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. Wahhabi is an extremist form of Islam8 that is so well-funded by Saudi Arabia that not a single Muslim population goes unpressured by its organisations9,10. It calls for Muslims "to return to a purer faith of the early centuries of Islam" and to reject any further thought and interpretation of scripture in the light of modern knowledge11. They focus on a direct and literal reading of the Qur'an8. "It is Wahhabism that motivated Osama Bin Laden and the Taliban"11. Wahhabism is outlawed in several Muslim countries including those as different as Iraq and Montenegro11. It is particularly responsible for the persecution of Sufi Islam in Saudi Arabia12. Wahhabi is an extremist form of Islam8 that is so well-funded by Saudi Arabia that not a single Muslim population goes unpressured by its organisations9,10. It calls for Muslims "to return to a purer faith of the early centuries of Islam" and to reject any further thought and interpretation of scripture in the light of modern knowledge11. They focus on a direct and literal reading of the Qur'an8. "It is Wahhabism that motivated Osama Bin Laden and the Taliban"11. Wahhabism is outlawed in several Muslim countries including those as different as Iraq and Montenegro11. It is particularly responsible for the persecution of Sufi Islam in Saudi Arabia12.
1.5. Salafi (19th century)
#egypt #islam #islamic_extremism #jordan #salafi #saudi_arabia #syria
Founded in Egypt in the 19th century. A fundamentalist puritanical Islamic movement with a literalist outlook towards the Qur'an, arising as increased literacy meant that more people than ever could read the Qur'an for themselves; the name means 'virtuous ancestors' and the movement is determined to return to the beliefs of the first few generations13. They reject mediation through interpreters and juridical schools of thought and so condemn Shi'a and Sufi islam, and, continue to generate communities that clash (sometimes violently) with the modern world13. Wahhabi, in Saudi Arabia, has the same aim. "The literalist character of this approach gives this trend an equally traditionalist character that insists of reference to the Texts but forbids any interpretive reading"14. Salafist groups are "in constant communication with scholars based primarily in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Egypt, or Syria)"14.
Reformist Salafi: The hardline fundamentalism of Salafi has caused many problems in the Islamic world, because dispensing with the long line of experienced deliberations of juridical Islamic thinkers also discards all of their practical resolutions to real-life issues that result when you attempt to make an ancient text fit a modern world. Without that layer of interpretation, everyone suffers. And so there have been a steady stream of thinkers who have attempted to re-add some level of rationality when trying to apply the Qur'an directly to modern life. But such thinkers have frequently been resisted, and sometimes oppressed and physically attacked. After this, some have fled to Western countries, where they are known as Salafi Reformers. As a result of exclusion, that have mostly moved away from the doctrine of having centralized, state-sponsored Islamic power.
“These include the well-known names of al-Afghani, Abduh, rida, al-Nursi, Iqbal, Ibn Badis, al-Banna, al-Fasi, Bennabi, Mawdudi, Qutb, and Shariati, in addition to many others whose influence was, or is restricted to a national level.”
"Western Muslims and the Future of Islam" by Tariq Ramadan (2004)14
1.6. Deobandi (1866CE)
#afghanistan #deobandi #india #islam #islamic_extremism
Founded in Deoband, India in 1866CE by Haji Mohammad Abi. The founder of this fundamentalist8 movement "established his Darul Al Ouloum (Knowledge Center) in 1866. [...] It is estimated that there are an additional 5,000 or more Deobandi schools scattered throughout the Indian subcontinent. While they insist upon an extensive knowledge of Hadith, they reject sufi practices and saints as innovation (bida'). The Deobandi is primarily concerned with the teaching and transmission of Islam through the creation of its Qu'ranic schools. The Taliban in Afghanistan took the Deobandi as their inspiration"8 and Jamaat Al-Tabligh also emerged from Deobandi Islam.
1.7. Barelvis (late 19th century)
Founded in India in the late 19th century by Ahmed Raza (1856-1921). Raza founded this fundamentalist8 movement to "emphasize the figure of the Prophet and [teach] that the souls of the prophet and saints act as mediators between believers and God"8; it "affirms traditional Sufism and the legitimacy of certain aspects of folk Islam, such as practices surrounding shaikhs (elders, or holy men) and shrines"15 and is adored for its devotional songs15.
1.8. Tablighi Jama'at (1926CE)
Founded in India in 1926CE by Muhammad Ilyas Kandhlawi. Arising from the Deobandi tradition, it's yet-another faction that preaches for Muslims to adhere to stricter Islam, with a stronger emphasis on proslytising to non-Muslims15. A tumultuous split in 2016 means that now there are two organisations with this name, one based in India led by Maulana Saad Kandhelvi, and the other spread across a few countries with no single HQ.
1.9. Muslim Brotherhood (1927/8CE)
#egypt #islam #islamic_extremism #muslim_brotherhood
Founded in Egypt in 1927/8CE by Hassan al-Banain10. Scholar Neil Kressel says "most contemporary manifestations of Islamic extremism can trace their earliest organizational roots to two movements"10, one of them being Jamaat-i-Islami and the other the Muslim Brotherhood.
“The Muslim Brotherhood [was] formed in Ismailiya in 1927, and dedicated to restoring Islam to prominence in Egypt. Its members fire-bombed cinemas and restaurants frequented by unbelievers. They attacked and scarred women who were not veiled. And they sought power by assassination. The Brothers killed two prime ministers; a third escaped three attempts on his life. They murdered a chief of police, an interior minister, a chief justice and scores of other officials.”
"Fundamentalism" by Steve Bruce (2008)16
2. Shia / Shi'ite Islam (632CE)
Founded in 632CE with the death of Muhammad. Defined by the belief that Muhammad's rightful successor was his family, starting with his cousin-and-son-in-law, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib2,4. Ali was finally granted the Caliph spot in 656CE, but was "tragically assassinated by a Muslim extremist in 661. [...] His rival, Muawiyyah, seized the caliphate throne, and established the more worldly Umayyad dynasty"1. When there were mass protests against their exclusion from power, the Umayyad dynasty also killed Ali's son Husain and most of his family and companions17. Shia's bitterly complain, quite rightly, that corrupt Sunni and Shia Muslim rulers have denied them justice4.
“In 680, when Caliph Muawiyyah died, there were huge demonstrations in Kufa in Iraq in favor of Ali´s second son, Husain. To avoid Umayyad reprisals, Husain sought sanctuary in Mecca, but the new Umayyad caliph, Yazid, sent emissaries to the holy city to assassinate him [although they didn't]. [Husain] set out for Kufa with a small band of fifty followers, accompanied by their wives and children, believing that the poignant spectacle of the Prophet´s family marching in opposition to tyranny would bring the ummah back to a more authentic practice of Islam.”
"The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam"
Karen Armstrong (2000)18
They were surrounded at Kerbala by Umayyad forces, and slaughtered. After that, the sixth Shii Imam, Jafar as-Sadiq (d. 765) gave up, and declared that the line of Imams, descended from Muhammad, would be spiritual leaders instead of political ones, in order to avoid pointless and endless - and unwinnable - conflict.19
“Shiis thus tacitly condoned a total secularization of politics that could seem to violate the crucial Islamic principle of tawhid, which forbade any such separation of state and religion. But the mythology of this secularization sprang from a religious insight. The legend of the Imams, who had nearly all been assassinated, poisoned, imprisoned, exiled, and, finally, eliminated by the [Sunni] caliphs, represented the basic incompatibility of religion and politics.”
"The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam"
Karen Armstrong (2000)20
To make this separation, they begun to interpret the Qur'an more symbolically than Sunnis.19
Shia Islam is found mainly in Iran, Iraq, Yemen and Bahrain.21
2.1. Jafri School (8th century)
#falsafah #islam #saudi_arabia
Founded in Medina, Saudi Arabia in the 8th century by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. Jafri islam isn't a denomination; like Falsafah, it's a school of thought, specifically in this case, a fiqh (school of jurisprudence), used widely by various Shia denominations. It encourages ijtihad - reasoned interpretation. This is the application of reason and practicality to Islamic law - something which tends to get banned by fundamentalist and extremist sects. It allows the use of the sayings and actions of the Imams, especially those of Ja'far al-Sadiq, as well the Hadiths and Quran. In difficult circumstances, it even allows taqiyya - the practice of concealing one's faith or beliefs when facing persecution or danger; this came about during long periods of violent oppression at the hands of Sunni Islam.
2.1.1. Usuli (10th-12th century)
Founded in Iraq and Iran in the 10th-12th century. Usulism (al-?U?uliyya) is now the mainstream school of jurisprudence within Twelver Shi'a Islam. Usulism started between the 10th and 12th centuries, but only rose to prominence in Safavid Iran (16th–18th centuries). It became the mainstream Twelver Shi'a school after decisively eclipsing its rival, Akhbarism, in the late 18th century. Like the Jafri school of jurisprudence, it also emphasizes the use of reason, critical analysis, and scholarly interpretation (ijtihad) to derive Islamic law. The name comes from U?ul al-fiqh, meaning “principles of jurisprudence". It applies rationality to the hadiths - not all traditions are accepted blindly and authenticity is critically assessed. A key difference to Jafri is that it encourages taqlid - following a living jurist as a guide.
2.2. Isma'ili (765CE)
Founded in Kufa, Iraq in 765CE. Isma'ili Islam is a Shia branch that split over who should succeed the sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq. Isma'ilis believe that his son Isma'il ibn Ja'far was the rightful seventh Imam. From there, mainstream Isma'ilis continued the line of Imams beyond Isma'il, eventually leading it to have much influence in northern Africa and contributing to the Fatimids dynasty, and the Nizari and Musta'li denominations.
2.2.1. Seveners (late 8th century)
Founded in Kufa, Iraq in the late 8th century. The Seveners are Isma'ili Muslims who believed that the seventh Imam, Isma'il ibn Ja'far, was the final Imam and his son Muhammad ibn Isma'il went into mystical hiding, and would return in the future as the Mahdi, a messianic figure. They therefore rejected all following Isma'ili Imams. Their most prominent and radical offshoot was the Qarmatians, who became known for their revolutionary zeal and even sacked Mecca in 930 CE.
Now "headed by the Aga Kham, they hold that the son of the sixth Imam after Ali, Isma'il, who died before his father, was the seventh Imam and after Ismail the line died out"7.
6.0.1. The Druze (1021CE)
#Christianity #druze #Islam #lebanon #religion #Zoroastrianism
A semi-secretive esoteric religion that combines Islam, Christianity and Zoroastrianism, but also with features of a Mystery Religion. Al-Muwaḥḥidūn core beliefs include continual reincarnation until the soul is reunited with the divine, the 8th-century belief that there are hidden meanings in the Quran (which is what makes Druze a 'mystery religion'22 or gnostic23) and that the successors of Ali are "eminently impregnated with the divine essence"22. The Muwaḥḥidūn became most famous when a wayward leader lessenned the strictness of its rules and preached that Haken, the head of their religion, was god incarnate. He gained so many converts that the entire movement became named after him, and declared himself its leader. To this day, the Druze are split between those who accept this denomination, and those who only accept the original ideas. The Lebanon is their principal home, where constitution permits grants the Druze a portion of government24.
For more, see:
2.2.2. Qaramita (late 9th century)
Founded in Saudi Arabia in the late 9th century by Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi (influenced by Hamdan Qarmat). The Qarmatians were Seveners who more strongly rejected the authority of the Fatimid Caliphate (which accepted a chain of Imams, not just the first 7), and developed their own more philosophically included communities in Eastern Arabia, particularly around Al-Ahsa. They were esoteric and rejected many mainstream Islamic practices, including ritual prayer, fasting and pilgrimage. Like many Isma'ili groups, they believed in the imminent arrival of the Mahdi, a messianic figure who would usher in justice and equality. They interpreted core Islamic concepts in symbolic or allegorical ways, and therefore, had a much more modern and philosophical outlook, with fewer problems between trying to harmonize literalist text with the complexities of reality.
In interpreting Islamic doctrine more symbolically, they came to actively oppose literalist, formulaic and traditionalist practices, which they saw as vulgar and verging on idolatry. They became revolutionary. Their most infamous act was in 930CE, under Abu Tahir al-Jannabi, when they raided Mecca during the Hajj pilgrimage season. They stole the Black Stone from the centre of the Kaaba and desecrated the Zamzam Well with corpses. The stone wasn´t returned until 952CE, over two decades later.
2.2.3. Nizari (1094CE)
Founded in Iran in 1094CE. Following the death of the Fatimid Caliph and Isma'ili Imam al-Mustansir Billah in 1094CE, of his two sons, Nizar was the natural hier (as the oldest), but the powerful al-Afdal Shahanshah official backed the younger son, al-Musta'li, and installed him as Imam and Caliph, leading to a schism that saw the forming of the Nizari and the Musta'li denominations.
After the Nizaris were denied power and influence, and they had to form a secretive and defensive society. They became known for their fortified mountain strongholds (like Alamut in Persia) and their campaign of assassinations of political enemies, especially against the Musta'li denomination which had all but stolen the Fatimid empire from them.
In modern times, led by their current Imam, Aga Khan IV, who is a prominent philanthropist and advocate for development through the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN), the community emphasizes ijtihad (independent reasoning), and their interpretation of Islam is deeply spiritual, ethical, and humanitarian.
2.2.4. Musta'li (1094CE)
Founded in Cairo, Egypt in 1094CE by al-Afdal Shahanshah. Following the death of the Fatimid Caliph and Isma'ili Imam al-Mustansir Billah in 1094CE, of his two sons, Nizar was the natural hier (as the oldest), but the powerful al-Afdal Shahanshah official backed the younger son, al-Musta'li, and installed him as Imam and Caliph, leading to a schism that saw the forming of the Nizari and the Musta'li denominations.
2.2.5. Tayyibi (1130CE)
Founded in Yemen in 1130CE queen Arwa al-Sulayhi, supporting the infant at-Tayyib. After the assassination of the Fatimid Caliph-Imam al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah in 1130, his infant son at-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim was declared the rightful 21st Imam by a faction of Musta'li Isma'ilis. However, political forces in the Faimid empire's capital at Cairo preferred a more practical leader, and installed al-Hafiz, al-Amir´s cousin, as both Caliph and Imam, leading to a split. Queen Arwa al-Sulayhi of Yemen, a powerful and devout Isma'ili ruler, refused to recognize al-Hafiz instead of at-Tayyibi. She established an office who would rule on the infant's behalf, with Dhu´ayb ibn Musa appointed Queen Arwa as the first ruler, and marking the beginning of Tayyibi Islam.
2.3. Twelvers (Ithna 'Ashariyah) (late 8th/early 9th century)
Founded in the late 8th/early 9th century. The Twelvers, or Ithna 'Ashariyah, arose after the death of the sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, in 765 CE, when a majority of his followers recognized his son Musa al-Kazim as the rightful seventh Imam, continuing the line of Imams up to the twelfth, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is believed to have gone into occultation around 874CE and who will return later as the Chosen One7. This belief in a line of twelve divinely guided Imams is what gave the sect its name. The Twelvers gained significant influence and political power during the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century, where it was made the state religion of Iran7.
2.4. Zaidiyyah ('Fivers') (8th century)
Founded in Kufa, Iraq in the 8th century by Zayd ibn Ali. Zaidiyyah emerged in the 8th century, when Zayd ibn Ali's followers (a great-grandson of Imam Ali) believed he was the rightful fifth Imam, which set them apart from other Shia groups, and they attempted a revolt against the Umayyad Caliphate. Zaydis are sometimes nicknamed the "Fivers". They emphasize rationalism, ijtihad (independent reasoning), and have historically been more theologically aligned with Sunni Islam than other Shia branches. Most Zaydis today are found in northern Yemen, where they´ve had a long and influential history.
2.5. Alawites (9th century)
#Christianity #islam #Jesus #syria
Founded in Syria in the 9th century indirectly by Muhammad ibn Nusayr. The Alawites trace their origins to Muhammad ibn Nusayr, a disciple of the tenth and eleventh Twelver Imams during the Abbasid Caliphate. His teachings formed the basis of what became known as Nusayrism, later evolving into Alawism. They were formally organized by al-Khasibi in the 10th century, were popular in Syria7 and during the Hamdanid dynasty in Aleppo; although they gained some influence, they remained a secretive and often persecuted minority for centuries. They accept some (but not as many) ideas of Christianity; Islam accepts Jesus as a prophet, but, the Alawites go a little further in also believing that Jesus was also resurrected.
2.6. Alevi (13th century)
Founded in Turkey in the 13th century inspired by Haji Bektash Veli (1209-1271CE). Alevi is a form of Islam blends elements of Shi'a Islam, Sufism, and traditional Anatolian (now Turkish) folk culture (including Shamanism. Aside from Turkey, it also has communities in the Balkans and among the Turkish diaspora in Europe. They accept the Twelve Imams (like the Twelvers), and state that their lineage goes back to Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. They are inspired by the 13th-century mystic Haji Bektash Veli, who emphasized love, tolerance, and inner spirituality. Many Alevis also identify with the Bektashi Order, a Sufi brotherhood with overlapping beliefs. Sunni and Shia Islam both reject large portions of Alevi belief, and the Alevis have faced violent persecution from Sunni Islam, and they still face marginalization, even in modern Turkey.
Manifestations of God can be seen as a unity of three things: divine truth, the Prophet, and Ali. They embrace music, poetry, and the semah (a ritual dance symbolizing cosmic harmony), together called the Cem ceremonies, and replacing the need for Mosques. Likewise, other routine elements of wider Islam are rejected: there is no mandatory fasting during Ramadan, no five daily prayers, and no pilgrimage to Mecca - Alevis focus on inner purity and ethical living.
3. Kharijites (656CE)
#islam #kharijites #saudi_arabia
Founded in Saudi Arabia in 656CE. Defined by belief that anyone can become a Caliph (Muslim leader) if they are upstanding, and, that any sinful Caliph needs to be removed. They existed in constant conflict, and petered out by the 13th century.25
3.1. Ibadiyyah (Ibadi) (late 7th century)
Founded in Iraq in the late 7th century. They trace their history to Muhammad's wife, Khadijah, and "see themselves as preserving the pure teachings of Muhammad"7. Most are nomadic tribespeople7, and, it is popular in Oman.
4. Sufi / Tasawwuf Islam (7th/8th century)
#bangladesh #guinea #india #islam #mali #Naqshbandis #pakistan #saudi_arabia #senegal #sufi #tasawwuf_islam
Founded in Saudi Arabia in the 7th/8th century by Hasan of Basra. Mostly Sunni, and the only primary denomination that can be described consistently as moderate and sometimes even tolerant, which has made it well-regarded outside of the Middle East26. A more mystical and symbolic approach to Muhammadean spiritualism27. Sufis are "numerous and very diversified. Whether Naqshbandis, Qadris, Shadhilis, or any of the many other turuq (plural of tariqa), Sufi circles are essentially orientated toward the spiritual life and mystical experience"14. Sufi still has some violent extremist elements such as the Naqshbandis26, and is becoming hardline in Guinea and Mali28. Sufi is practised by up to 450m people across Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, who together represent perhaps one third of all Muslims26 and is also influential in sub-saharan Africa, notably Senegal12.
“Sufis believed that their mystical ecstasy reproduced the spiritual experiences of the Prophet when he had received the Koran; they too were conforming to the Muhammadan archetype.”
"The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam"
Karen Armstrong (2000)4
South-East Asia:
“In its popular form, Sufism is expressed mainly through the veneration of saints, including self-styled mystics. [...] South Asia is littered with the tombs of those saints [...] like the 13th century shrine of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, founder of South Asia's pre-eminent Sufi order, in Ajmer. [...] Under Chisti influence, low-caste Hindus converted to Islam, to escape their low birth. [...]
Many also note that Sufism is not, as Westerners seem to think, uniform. The conservative Naqshbandis, followers of another of South Asia's main orders, have helped spread jihad: there was a Naqshbandi insurgent group in Iraq.”
The Economist (2008)26
“Only 13 percent (1 of 8) Muslim-majority countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have a moderate/high or very high level of persecution, compared with 81 percent in Asia and Eurasia (9 of 11) and 62 percent of Muslim-majority countries in the Near East and North Africa (10 of 16). [...] Factors that contribute to fewer religious restrictions in some Sub-Saharan countries [include the] highly mystical Sufism practiced by a variety of groups to voluntary brotherhoods that cut across tribal and ethnic lines. Sufism, which focuses on the spirit above the law, is much more difficult to regulate centrally, resulting in opposition from Wahhabi groups, and even persecution in Saudi Arabia. [...] In Senegal, in particular, where Sufism is strong, persecution occurs at lower levels. Senegal has policies that attempt to show equal respect for all religions, rather than showing favoritism only to Islam.”
"The Price of Freedom Denied" by Brian J. Grim and Roger Finke (2011)12
“When Sufism collaborated with the morally liberal stances of the secular governments in West Africa [...] popular disillusionment resulted and other Muslims rallied support for a more conservative, Islamic norm-based society. Thus, the developments in Guinea and Mali indicate that the levels of both are increasing.”
"The Price of Freedom Denied"
Brian J. Grim and Roger Finke (2011)28
4.1. Akbarism (13th century)
#buddhism #hinduism #india #islam #pantheism #spain #syria #turkey
Founded in Spain in the 13th century inspired by Ibn Arabi. Akbari Islam is a Sufi metaphysical school rooted in the teachings of the Andalusian mystic Ibn Arabi (1165–1240 CE), often called Shaykh al-Akbar ("the Greatest Master"). It became influential in Syria, Anatolia (now Turkey), Persia, and India. It was primarily formed by al-Akbar's disciples such as Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi and later thinkers Dawud al-Qaysari and Mulla Sadra. Its core teaching pantheist: creation isn't external to God - all existence is a manifestation of the Divine. Much like Buddhism or Hinduism, the journey of the soul is about recognizing this unity and returning to the Source. It does not embrace the legalism or strictness of Sunni or Shia forms of Islam, and is a deeply philosophical, poetic, and symbolic approach.
5. Falsafah (9th-12th century)
Founded in the 9th-12th century. This was a train of thought that saw Greek philosophical concepts discussed and condoned in the search for "primordial, universal faith of timeless truths, which, they were convinced, had preceded the various historical religions"4. It had potential to become a denomination, but was opposed increasingly strongly until it disappeared in the 12th century.
6. Jamaat-i-Islami (1941CE)
#india #islam #islamic_extremism #jamaat_i_islami #jamaat-i-islami
Founded in India in 1941CE15 by Mawlana Abul Aala Mawdudi10,15. Jamaat-i-Islami pushes Islam as a whole-life endeavour - including politics and national organisation - and belittles other forms of piestic Islam."Cross and Crescent: Responding to the Challenges of Islam" by Colin Chapman (2007)29. Scholar Neil Kressel says "most contemporary manifestations of Islamic extremism can trace their earliest organizational roots to two movements"10, one of them being Jamaat-i-Islami and the other the Muslim Brotherhood.